Causes of Global Warming
Greenhouse Gases
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during the 20th century has resulted from the growing use of energy and expansion of the global economy. Over the century, industrial activity grew 40-fold, and the emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) grew 10-fold.
The amount of CO2 in the air increased from some 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) at the beginning of the century to 383 ppmv at the end of 2007. The amount of CO2 varies within each year as the result of the annual cycles of photosynthesis and oxidation (see graph). Of the other greenhouse gases, methane (CH4), which is formed by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, rose from a preindustrial atmospheric concentration of around 700 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) to about 1 789 ppbv by 2007. Other important greenhouse gases include the oxides of nitrogen, notably nitrous oxide (NO2) and halocarbons, including the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine and bromine containing compounds.
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere alters the radiative balance of the atmosphere. The net effect is to warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the Earths outgoing heat radiation and reradiate it back towards the surface. The overall warming from 1850 to the end of the 20th century was equivalent to about 2.5 W/m2; CO2 contributed some 60 per cent of this figure and CH4 about 25 per cent, with N2O and halocarbons providing the remainder. The warming effect that would result from a doubling of CO2 from pre-industrial levels is estimated to be 4 W/m2.
Ozone Depletion
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In 1985 Joe Farman, of the British Antarctic Survey, published a paper showing the decline of ozone levels over Antarctica during the early 1980s. The response was dramatic: large-scale international scientific programmes were mounted to prove that CFCs (used as aerosol propellants, in industrial cleaning fluids and in refrigeration equipment) were the cause of the problem. Even more important was immediate international action to curb the emissions of CFCs.
Plummeting ozone levels in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and October are the result of complex chemical processes. The return of the Sun at the end of winter triggers photochemical reactions that lead to the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. The October values of ozone have declined by up to 70 per cent compared to the pre-ozone hole years, and the size of the ozone hole had grown to more than 25 million km2 (twice the size of Antarctica) by 2000.
Over the Arctic the gradual development of an annual decline during the 1990s is a significant trend. More generally, over northern middle latitudes the concentration of stratospheric ozone has decreased since 1979 by 5.4 per cent in winter and spring, and by about 2.8 per cent in summer and autumn. There has been no discernible trend in the tropics and subtropics.
The scale and suddenness of the ozone decline shocked the scientific world, and led to the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol and subsequent amendments to eliminate certain CFCs from industrial production. As a result of this rapid action the global consumption of the most active gases fell by 40 per cent within five years and the levels of certain chlorine-containing chemicals in the atmosphere have started to decline. It will be decades before the CFCs already in the atmosphere fully decay. In the meantime, the substantial destruction of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and October will continue.
Aerosols in the Atmosphere
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Atmospheric aerosols are able to alter climate in two important ways. First, they scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation and, second, they may change the microphysical and chemical properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and extent. The scattering of solar radiation acts to cool the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols warms the air directly instead of allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth.
The human contribution to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere takes many forms. Dust is a biproduct of agriculture. Biomass burning produces a combination of organic droplets and soot particles. Industrial processes produce a wide variety of aerosols depending on what is being burned or produced in the manufacturing process. In addition, exhaust emissions from transport generate a rich cocktail of pollutants that are either aerosols from the outset, or are converted by chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols.
The concentrations of condensation nuclei are about three times higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This higher concentration is estimated to result in radiation forcing that is only about 50 per cent higher for the Northern Hemisphere.
Elements of Climate Change
Most models predict that future climate change could include:
higher maximum temperatures and more hot days in nearly all land areas;
more intense precipitation events over many Northern Hemisphere middle to high latitude land areas;
higher minimum temperatures and fewer cold days and frost over virtually all land areas;
reduced diurnal temperature range across most land areas;
summer continental drying in some areas and associated drought risks.
Temperature
The globally averaged surface air temperature is estimated to increase from 1990 to 2100 by between 1.4°C and 5.8°C. Climate models cannot yet provide a detailed picture of regional climate change, but it is likely that nearly all land areas, particularly those at high latitudes in the winter season, will warm more rapidly than the global average. Most notable is the warming in the northern regions of North America, and northern and central Asia. In contrast, the warming is less than the expected global mean over South and Southeast Asia in summer and southern South America in winter. The surface temperature is likely to rise least in the North Atlantic and the circumpolar Southern Ocean.
Precipitation
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Globally-averaged water vapour and precipitation are projected to increase along with the warming. It is expected that precipitation will increase over northern middle and high latitudes and Antarctica in winter. At low latitudes both regional increases and decreases of rainfall over land areas are expected. Larger year-to-year variations are likely over those areas where the mean precipitation is predicted to increase.
Cryosphere
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At high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere snow cover and sea-ice extent will continue to decrease. Glaciers and ice caps are projected to continue their widespread retreat. Over Greenland, the ice sheet is expected to lose mass as a result of ice melt runoff and iceberg calving. Only the Antarctic ice sheet is likely to gain in mass because of greater precipitation.
Sea level Rise
Global mean sea level is projected to rise between 0.09 and 0.88 m above the 1990 level by 2100. This rise is due primarily to thermal expansion of the warmer oceans combined with melting of glaciers and ice sheets. The global mean temperature and sea level would continue to increase beyond 2100 because of the slow thermal response of the oceans, even if carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had stabilized by then.
Rising sea levels are expected to have severe effects on many low-lying areas, forcing populations to move inland to higher levels.
Climate Change Assessments
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. It is open to all Members of UNEP and of WMO. The Panel does not conduct new research, monitor climate-related data or recommend policies for governments. Its mandate is to assess the relevant research information on climate change available in peer-reviewed literature, journals and books. It provides scientific, technical and socioeconomic information to the world community, particularly to the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, see below).
The IPCC has now completed four assessments of climate change, the latest being published in 2007 (see Climate Projections).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
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More than a decade ago, most countries joined an international treaty - the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - to begin to consider what can be done to reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. More recently, a number of nations approved an addition to the treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which has more powerful (and legally-binding) measures.
A major accomplishment of the Convention is that it recognizes that there is a problem. That was no small thing in 1994, when the treaty took effect and less scientific evidence was available. The Convention sets an ultimate objective of stabilizing greenhouse gasconcentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner."
The Convention requires precise and regularly updated inventories of greenhouse gas emissions from industrialized countries. With a few exceptions, the "base year" for tabulating greenhouse gas emissions has been set as 1990. Developing countries are also encouraged to produce inventories.
Countries ratifying the treaty agree to take climate change into account in such matters as agriculture, industry, energy, natural resources, and activities involving sea coasts. They agree to develop national programmes to slow climate change. The Convention encourages all Parties to take action on two prongs:
Mitigation: gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices;
Adaptation: launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries, cooperate in preparing for adaptationto the impacts of climate chang.
The Convention recognizes that it is a "framework" document -something to be amended or augmented over time so that efforts to deal with global warming and climate change can be focused and made more effective.
Convention Bodies
Conference of the Parties
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the "supreme body" of the Convention, that is, its highest decision-making authority. It is an association of all the countries that are Parties to the Convention.
The COP is responsible for keeping international efforts to address climate change on track. It reviews the implementation of the Convention and examines the commitments of Parties in light of the Conventions objective, new scientific findings and experience gained in implementing climate change policies. A key task for the COP is to review the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties. Based on this information, the COP assesses the effects of the measures taken by Parties and the progress made in achieving the ultimate objective of the Convention.
The COP meets every year, unless the Parties decide otherwise. The COP meets in Bonn, the seat of the secretariat, unless a Party offers to host the session. Just as the COP Presidency rotates among the five recognized UN regions - that is, Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Central and Eastern Europe and Western Europe and Others there is a tendency for the venue of the COP to also shift among these groups.
Subsidiary Bodies
The Convention established two permanent subsidiary bodies: the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI). These bodies give advice to the COP and each has a specific mandate. They are both open to participation by any Party and governments often send representatives who are experts in the fields of the respective bodies.
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)
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The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) was created to provide UNFCCC's Conference of the Parties with advice on scientific, technological and methodological matters. Two key areas are promoting the development and transfer of environmentally-friendly technologies, and conducting technical work to improve the guidelines for preparing national communications and emission inventories. In addition, the SBSTA plays an important role as the link between the scientific information provided by expert sources such as the IPCC on the one hand, and the policy-oriented needs of the COP on the other. The SBSTA works closely with the IPCC, sometimes requesting specific information or reports from it, and also collaborates with other relevant international organizations that share the common objective of sustainable development.
Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI)
The SBI gives advice to the COP on all matters concerning the implementation of the Convention. A particularly important task in this respect is to examine the information in the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties in order to assess the Conventions overall effectiveness. The SBI reviews the financial assistance given to non-Annex I Parties to help them implement their Convention commitments, and provides advice to the COP on guidance to the financial mechanism (operated by the GEF). The SBI also advises the COP on budgetary and administrative matters.
The SBSTA and SBI work together on cross-cutting issues that touch on both their areas of expertise. These include capacity building, the vulnerability of developing countries to climate change and response measures, and the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms.
The SBSTA and the SBI have traditionally met in parallel, at least twice a year. When they are not meeting in conjunction with the COP, the subsidiary bodies usually convene at the seat of the secretariat.
Bali Action Plan
The thirteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 13) in Bali, December 2007 Adopted the Bali Action Plan (Decision 1/CP.13), whichidentifies adaptationas one of the five key building blocks required(shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and financial resources) for a strengthened future response to climate change to enable the full, effective and sustained implementation of the Convention through long-term cooperative action, now, up to and beyond 2012 (paragraph 1). The Bali Conference was the start of negotiations to enhance the international climate change regime - the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol - by the end of 2009, whilst setting a clear roadmap for negotiations, the Bali Road map process.
Nairobi Work Programme
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In 2004, in Buenos Aires, UNFCCC Parties decided to elaborate a five-year work programme under the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA). Details of the work programme were finalized in 2006 in Nairobi, where the programme was renamed the Nairobi work programme on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change.
The aim of the Nairobi work programme is to assist all Parties, in particular developing countries, including the least developed countries and small island developing States, to:
improve their understanding and assessment of impacts, vulnerability and adaptation;
make informed decisions on practical adaptation actions and measures to respond to climate change on a sound scientific, technical and socio-economic basis, taking into account current and future climate change and variability
Work is conducted under nine headings:
Methods and tools
Data and observations
Climate modelling, scenarios and downscaling
Climate-related risks and extreme events
Socio-economic information
Adaptation planning and practices
Research
Technologies for adaptation
Economic diversification
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs)
The National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) provide an important way to prioritise urgent and immediate adaptation needs for Least Developed Countries (Article 4.9). The NAPAs draw on existing information and community-level input. A database of all NAPA priority adaptation projects sorted by country and sector is available online at the UNFCCCLeast Developed Countries (LDC) portal.
Local coping strategies database
Community-based adaptation can greatly benefit from knowledge of local coping strategies. The secretariat has developed a local coping strategies database to facilitate the transfer of long-standing coping strategies and knowledge from communities which have adapted to specific hazards or climatic conditions, to communities which may just be starting to experience such conditions as a result of climate change.
Greenhouse Gases
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during the 20th century has resulted from the growing use of energy and expansion of the global economy. Over the century, industrial activity grew 40-fold, and the emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) grew 10-fold.
The amount of CO2 in the air increased from some 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) at the beginning of the century to 383 ppmv at the end of 2007. The amount of CO2 varies within each year as the result of the annual cycles of photosynthesis and oxidation (see graph). Of the other greenhouse gases, methane (CH4), which is formed by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, rose from a preindustrial atmospheric concentration of around 700 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) to about 1 789 ppbv by 2007. Other important greenhouse gases include the oxides of nitrogen, notably nitrous oxide (NO2) and halocarbons, including the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine and bromine containing compounds.
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere alters the radiative balance of the atmosphere. The net effect is to warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the Earths outgoing heat radiation and reradiate it back towards the surface. The overall warming from 1850 to the end of the 20th century was equivalent to about 2.5 W/m2; CO2 contributed some 60 per cent of this figure and CH4 about 25 per cent, with N2O and halocarbons providing the remainder. The warming effect that would result from a doubling of CO2 from pre-industrial levels is estimated to be 4 W/m2.
Ozone Depletion
» back to top
In 1985 Joe Farman, of the British Antarctic Survey, published a paper showing the decline of ozone levels over Antarctica during the early 1980s. The response was dramatic: large-scale international scientific programmes were mounted to prove that CFCs (used as aerosol propellants, in industrial cleaning fluids and in refrigeration equipment) were the cause of the problem. Even more important was immediate international action to curb the emissions of CFCs.
Plummeting ozone levels in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and October are the result of complex chemical processes. The return of the Sun at the end of winter triggers photochemical reactions that lead to the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. The October values of ozone have declined by up to 70 per cent compared to the pre-ozone hole years, and the size of the ozone hole had grown to more than 25 million km2 (twice the size of Antarctica) by 2000.
Over the Arctic the gradual development of an annual decline during the 1990s is a significant trend. More generally, over northern middle latitudes the concentration of stratospheric ozone has decreased since 1979 by 5.4 per cent in winter and spring, and by about 2.8 per cent in summer and autumn. There has been no discernible trend in the tropics and subtropics.
The scale and suddenness of the ozone decline shocked the scientific world, and led to the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol and subsequent amendments to eliminate certain CFCs from industrial production. As a result of this rapid action the global consumption of the most active gases fell by 40 per cent within five years and the levels of certain chlorine-containing chemicals in the atmosphere have started to decline. It will be decades before the CFCs already in the atmosphere fully decay. In the meantime, the substantial destruction of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and October will continue.
Aerosols in the Atmosphere
» back to top
Atmospheric aerosols are able to alter climate in two important ways. First, they scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation and, second, they may change the microphysical and chemical properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and extent. The scattering of solar radiation acts to cool the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols warms the air directly instead of allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth.
The human contribution to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere takes many forms. Dust is a biproduct of agriculture. Biomass burning produces a combination of organic droplets and soot particles. Industrial processes produce a wide variety of aerosols depending on what is being burned or produced in the manufacturing process. In addition, exhaust emissions from transport generate a rich cocktail of pollutants that are either aerosols from the outset, or are converted by chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols.
The concentrations of condensation nuclei are about three times higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This higher concentration is estimated to result in radiation forcing that is only about 50 per cent higher for the Northern Hemisphere.
Elements of Climate Change
Most models predict that future climate change could include:
higher maximum temperatures and more hot days in nearly all land areas;
more intense precipitation events over many Northern Hemisphere middle to high latitude land areas;
higher minimum temperatures and fewer cold days and frost over virtually all land areas;
reduced diurnal temperature range across most land areas;
summer continental drying in some areas and associated drought risks.
Temperature
The globally averaged surface air temperature is estimated to increase from 1990 to 2100 by between 1.4°C and 5.8°C. Climate models cannot yet provide a detailed picture of regional climate change, but it is likely that nearly all land areas, particularly those at high latitudes in the winter season, will warm more rapidly than the global average. Most notable is the warming in the northern regions of North America, and northern and central Asia. In contrast, the warming is less than the expected global mean over South and Southeast Asia in summer and southern South America in winter. The surface temperature is likely to rise least in the North Atlantic and the circumpolar Southern Ocean.
Precipitation
» back to top
Globally-averaged water vapour and precipitation are projected to increase along with the warming. It is expected that precipitation will increase over northern middle and high latitudes and Antarctica in winter. At low latitudes both regional increases and decreases of rainfall over land areas are expected. Larger year-to-year variations are likely over those areas where the mean precipitation is predicted to increase.
Cryosphere
» back to top
At high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere snow cover and sea-ice extent will continue to decrease. Glaciers and ice caps are projected to continue their widespread retreat. Over Greenland, the ice sheet is expected to lose mass as a result of ice melt runoff and iceberg calving. Only the Antarctic ice sheet is likely to gain in mass because of greater precipitation.
Sea level Rise
Global mean sea level is projected to rise between 0.09 and 0.88 m above the 1990 level by 2100. This rise is due primarily to thermal expansion of the warmer oceans combined with melting of glaciers and ice sheets. The global mean temperature and sea level would continue to increase beyond 2100 because of the slow thermal response of the oceans, even if carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had stabilized by then.
Rising sea levels are expected to have severe effects on many low-lying areas, forcing populations to move inland to higher levels.
Climate Change Assessments
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. It is open to all Members of UNEP and of WMO. The Panel does not conduct new research, monitor climate-related data or recommend policies for governments. Its mandate is to assess the relevant research information on climate change available in peer-reviewed literature, journals and books. It provides scientific, technical and socioeconomic information to the world community, particularly to the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, see below).
The IPCC has now completed four assessments of climate change, the latest being published in 2007 (see Climate Projections).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
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More than a decade ago, most countries joined an international treaty - the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - to begin to consider what can be done to reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. More recently, a number of nations approved an addition to the treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which has more powerful (and legally-binding) measures.
A major accomplishment of the Convention is that it recognizes that there is a problem. That was no small thing in 1994, when the treaty took effect and less scientific evidence was available. The Convention sets an ultimate objective of stabilizing greenhouse gasconcentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner."
The Convention requires precise and regularly updated inventories of greenhouse gas emissions from industrialized countries. With a few exceptions, the "base year" for tabulating greenhouse gas emissions has been set as 1990. Developing countries are also encouraged to produce inventories.
Countries ratifying the treaty agree to take climate change into account in such matters as agriculture, industry, energy, natural resources, and activities involving sea coasts. They agree to develop national programmes to slow climate change. The Convention encourages all Parties to take action on two prongs:
Mitigation: gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices;
Adaptation: launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries, cooperate in preparing for adaptationto the impacts of climate chang.
The Convention recognizes that it is a "framework" document -something to be amended or augmented over time so that efforts to deal with global warming and climate change can be focused and made more effective.
Convention Bodies
Conference of the Parties
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the "supreme body" of the Convention, that is, its highest decision-making authority. It is an association of all the countries that are Parties to the Convention.
The COP is responsible for keeping international efforts to address climate change on track. It reviews the implementation of the Convention and examines the commitments of Parties in light of the Conventions objective, new scientific findings and experience gained in implementing climate change policies. A key task for the COP is to review the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties. Based on this information, the COP assesses the effects of the measures taken by Parties and the progress made in achieving the ultimate objective of the Convention.
The COP meets every year, unless the Parties decide otherwise. The COP meets in Bonn, the seat of the secretariat, unless a Party offers to host the session. Just as the COP Presidency rotates among the five recognized UN regions - that is, Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Central and Eastern Europe and Western Europe and Others there is a tendency for the venue of the COP to also shift among these groups.
Subsidiary Bodies
The Convention established two permanent subsidiary bodies: the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI). These bodies give advice to the COP and each has a specific mandate. They are both open to participation by any Party and governments often send representatives who are experts in the fields of the respective bodies.
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)
» back to top
The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) was created to provide UNFCCC's Conference of the Parties with advice on scientific, technological and methodological matters. Two key areas are promoting the development and transfer of environmentally-friendly technologies, and conducting technical work to improve the guidelines for preparing national communications and emission inventories. In addition, the SBSTA plays an important role as the link between the scientific information provided by expert sources such as the IPCC on the one hand, and the policy-oriented needs of the COP on the other. The SBSTA works closely with the IPCC, sometimes requesting specific information or reports from it, and also collaborates with other relevant international organizations that share the common objective of sustainable development.
Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI)
The SBI gives advice to the COP on all matters concerning the implementation of the Convention. A particularly important task in this respect is to examine the information in the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties in order to assess the Conventions overall effectiveness. The SBI reviews the financial assistance given to non-Annex I Parties to help them implement their Convention commitments, and provides advice to the COP on guidance to the financial mechanism (operated by the GEF). The SBI also advises the COP on budgetary and administrative matters.
The SBSTA and SBI work together on cross-cutting issues that touch on both their areas of expertise. These include capacity building, the vulnerability of developing countries to climate change and response measures, and the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms.
The SBSTA and the SBI have traditionally met in parallel, at least twice a year. When they are not meeting in conjunction with the COP, the subsidiary bodies usually convene at the seat of the secretariat.
Bali Action Plan
The thirteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 13) in Bali, December 2007 Adopted the Bali Action Plan (Decision 1/CP.13), whichidentifies adaptationas one of the five key building blocks required(shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and financial resources) for a strengthened future response to climate change to enable the full, effective and sustained implementation of the Convention through long-term cooperative action, now, up to and beyond 2012 (paragraph 1). The Bali Conference was the start of negotiations to enhance the international climate change regime - the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol - by the end of 2009, whilst setting a clear roadmap for negotiations, the Bali Road map process.
Nairobi Work Programme
» back to top
In 2004, in Buenos Aires, UNFCCC Parties decided to elaborate a five-year work programme under the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA). Details of the work programme were finalized in 2006 in Nairobi, where the programme was renamed the Nairobi work programme on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change.
The aim of the Nairobi work programme is to assist all Parties, in particular developing countries, including the least developed countries and small island developing States, to:
improve their understanding and assessment of impacts, vulnerability and adaptation;
make informed decisions on practical adaptation actions and measures to respond to climate change on a sound scientific, technical and socio-economic basis, taking into account current and future climate change and variability
Work is conducted under nine headings:
Methods and tools
Data and observations
Climate modelling, scenarios and downscaling
Climate-related risks and extreme events
Socio-economic information
Adaptation planning and practices
Research
Technologies for adaptation
Economic diversification
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs)
The National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) provide an important way to prioritise urgent and immediate adaptation needs for Least Developed Countries (Article 4.9). The NAPAs draw on existing information and community-level input. A database of all NAPA priority adaptation projects sorted by country and sector is available online at the UNFCCCLeast Developed Countries (LDC) portal.
Local coping strategies database
Community-based adaptation can greatly benefit from knowledge of local coping strategies. The secretariat has developed a local coping strategies database to facilitate the transfer of long-standing coping strategies and knowledge from communities which have adapted to specific hazards or climatic conditions, to communities which may just be starting to experience such conditions as a result of climate change.
